Etymology Case Essay

The word horticulture is modeled after agriculture, and comes from the Latin hortus â€Å"garden† and cultÃ… «ra â€Å"cultivation†, from cultus, the perfect passive participle of the verb colÃ…  â€Å"I cultivate†.Hortus is cognate with the native English word yard (in the meaning of land associated with a building) and also the borrowed word garden. Understanding horticulture Horticulture is a term that evokes images of plants, gardening, and people working in the horticultural industries. For the public, and policy makers, the term is not completely understood nor is its impact on human activities been fully appreciated. Horticulture impacts widely on human activities, more than its popular understanding as merely â€Å"gardening† would indicate. It needs to be recognized as a matrix of inter-relating areas that overlap, with complex inter-relationships. A wider and more accurate definition will communicate effectively the importance of plants, their cultivation and their use for sustainable human existence. The popular â€Å"gardening activity† sense fails to convey the important role that horticulture plays in the lives of individuals, communities and human societies as a whole. Describing its impact on the physiological, psychological and social activities of people is key to expanding our understanding; however â€Å"the cultivation of a garden, orchard, or nursery† and â€Å"the cultivation of flowers, fruits, vegetables, or ornamental plants† as well as â€Å"the science and art of cultivating such plants† will suffice to sketch the outline of a short description. Expanded the traditional understanding of horticulture beyond â€Å"garden† cultivation. Turkey (1962) gave an overview of those involved in the field of horticulture, in stating that there are those who are concerned with the science or biological side, those concerned with the business side and finally those who are concerned with the home or art side, which enjoy plants simply for the satisfaction they get from them. Primarily it is an art, but it is intimately connected with science at every point. Relf highlighted the fact that, in limiting the definition of horticulture severely limits an understanding of what horticulture means in terms of human well-being. Relf provided a comprehensive definition of horticulture as; the art and science of plants resulting in the development of minds and emotions of individuals, the enrichment and health of communities, and the integration of the â€Å"garden† in the breadth of modern civilization. In addition, Half acre and Barden (1979), Janick and Goldman (2003). Further extended the scope of horticulture when they agreed that the origins of horticulture are intimately associated with the history of humanity and that horticulture encompasses all life and bridges the gap between science, art and human beings. This broader vision of horticulture embraces plants, including the multitude of products and activities (oxygen, food, medicine, clothing, shelter, celebration or remembrance) essential for human survival; and people, whose active and passive involvement with â€Å"the garden† brings about benefits to them as individuals and to the communities and cultures they encompass Greenhouse effect A representation of the exchanges of energy between the source (the Sun), the Earth’s surface, the Earth’s atmosphere, and the ultimate sink outer space. The ability of the atmosphere to capture and recycle energy emitted by the Earth surface is the defining characteristic of the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions. Since part of this re-radiation is back towards the surface and the lower atmosphere, it results in an elevation of the average surface temperature above what it would be in the absence of the gases. Solar radiation at the frequencies of visible light largely passes through the atmosphere to warm the planetary surface, which then emits this energy at the lower frequencies of infrared thermal radiation. Infrared radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases, which in turn re-radiate much of the energy to the surface and lower atmosphere. The mechanism is named after the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse, but the way it retains heat is fundamentally different as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow, isolating the warm air inside the structure so that heat is not lost by convection. If an ideal thermally conductive blackbody was the same distance from the Sun as the Earth is, it would have a temperature of about 5.3  °C. However, since the Earth reflects about 30% of the incoming sunlight, the planet’s effective temperature (the temperature of a blackbody that would emit the same amount of radiation) is about −18  °C,[7][8] about 33 °C below the actual surface temperature of about 14  °C.[ The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect. Earth’s natural greenhouse effect makes life as we know it possible. However, human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests, have intensified the natural greenhouse effect, causing global warming. MODERN ELECTRONICS Home appliance Numerous appliances are found in the kitchen. Home appliances are electrical/mechanical machines which accomplish some household functions, such as cooking or cleaning. Home appliances can be classified into: * Major appliances, or White goods * Small appliances, or Brown goods * Consumer electronics, or Shiny goods This division is also noticeable in the service area of these kinds of products. Brown goods usually require high technical knowledge and skills (which get more complex with time, such as going from a soldering iron to a hot-air soldering station), while white goods need more practical skills and â€Å"brute force† to manipulate the devices and heavy tools required to repair them. Electric blanket In the US the electric blanket is a blanket with an integrated electrical heating device usually placed above the top bed sheet. In the UK and Commonwealth, electric blanket commonly refers to an electric mattress pad, which is placed below the bottom bed sheet. Electric blankets usually have a control unit which adjusts the amount of heat the blanket produces. Blankets for larger sized beds often have separate controls for each side of the bed. The electric blanket may be used to pre-heat the bed before use or to keep the occupant warm while in bed. Modern electric blankets have carbon fibre wires. These blankets usually work on 24 volts instead of the 110/240 volts. Therefore, they are advertised as being a safer, more efficient and more comfortable alternative. Zhangjiajie, China : The Bailong Elevator is the world’s largest exterior elevator. At over 1,000 feet tall, this elevator looms high midway up a cliff overlooking a valley far below. Moreover, the elevator is mostly glass, affording passengers a dizzying view to the depths below. There is some concern, however, about the elevator’s long-term impact on the surrounding natural environment. Yangtze, China :The Three Gorges Dam has drawn fire from people around the world for its role in raising water levels and displacing millions of Chinese residents in the area. As a work of engineering, however, it is unparalleled. It will be the largest hydroelectric dam in the world, 600 feet high and holding 1.4 trillion cubic feet of water behind 100 million cubic feet of concrete. This engineering wonder will also eventually provide as much as 10% of China’s vast power needs. Technology By the mid 20th century, humans had achieved a mastery of technology sufficient to leave the atmosphere of the Earth for the first time and explore space. Technology is the making, modification, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems, methods of organization, in order to solve a problem, improve a preexisting solution to a problem, achieve a goal or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, modifications, arrangements and procedures. Technologies significantly affect human as well as other animal species’ ability to control and adapt to their natural environments. The word technology comes from Greek Ï„Î µÃâ€¡ÃŽ ½ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ »ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ³ÃŽ ¯ÃŽ ± (technologà ­a); from Ï„Î ­Ãâ€¡ÃŽ ½ÃŽ · (tà ©chnÄ“), meaning â€Å"art, skill, craft†, and -ÃŽ »ÃŽ ¿ÃŽ ³ÃŽ ¯ÃŽ ± meaning â€Å"study of-â€Å".[1] The term can either be applied generally or to specific areas: examples include construction technology, medical technology, and information technology. The human species’ use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The prehistorical discovery of the ability to control fire increased the available sources of food and the invention of the wheel helped humans in travelling in and controlling their environment. Recent technological developments, including the printing press, the telephone, and the Internet, have lessened physical barriers to communication and allowed humans to interact freely on a global scale. However, not all technology has been used for peaceful purposes; the development of weapo ns of ever-increasing destructive power has progressed throughout history, from clubs to nuclear weapons.

Economic Consequences of Software Crime

In 1996 worldwide illegal copying of domestic and international software cost $15. 2 billion to the software industry, with a loss of $5. 1 billion in the North America alone. Some sources put the total up-to-date losses, due to software crime, as high as $4. 7 trillion. On the next page is a regional breakdown of software piracy losses for 1994. Estimates show that over 40 percent of North American software company revenues are generated overseas, yet nearly 85 percent of the software industry†s piracy losses occurred outside of North America. The Software Publishers Association (SPA) indicated that approximately 35 percent of the business software in the North America was obtained illegally. In fact, 30 percent of the piracy occurs in corporate settings. In a corporate setting or business, every computer must have its own set of original software and the appropriate number of manuals. It is illegal for a corporation or business to purchase a single set of original s! oftware and then load that software onto more than one computer, or lend, copy or distribute software for any reason without the prior written consent of the software manufacturer. Many software managers are concerned with the legal compliance, along with asset management and costs to their organizations. Many firms involve their legal departments and human resources in regards to software distribution and licensing. Information can qualify to be property in two ways; patent law and copyright laws which are creations of federal statutes, which are subject to Constitutional authority. In order for the government to prosecute the unauthorized copying of computerized information as theft, it must first rely on other theories of information-as-property. Trade secret laws are created by provincial law, and most jurisdictions have laws that criminalize the violations of a trade-secret holder†s rights. The definition of a trade secret varies somewhat from province to province, but commonly have the same elements. For example, the information must be secret, not of public knowledge or of general knowledge in the trade or business. A court will allow a trade secret to be used by someone who discovered or developed the trade secret independently if the holder takes adequate precautions to protect the secret. In 1964, the National Copyright Office began to register software as a form of literary expression. The office based its decision on White-Smith Music Co. v. Apollo, where the Supreme Court determined that a piano roll used in a player piano did not infringe upon copyrighted music because the roll was part of a mechanical device. Since a computer program is textual, like a book, yet also mechanical, like the piano roll in White-Smith, the Copyright Office granted copyright protection under the rule of doubt. In 1974, the government created the Natural Commission on New Technological Uses (CONTU) to investigate whether the evolving computer technology field outpaced the existing copyright laws and also to determine the extent of copyright protection for computer programs. CONTU concluded that while copyright protection should extend beyond the literal source code of a computer program, evolving case law should determine the extent of protection. The commission also felt copyright was the best alternative among existing intellectual property protective mechanisms. CONTU rejected trade secret and patents as viable protective mechanisms. The CONTU report resulted in the 1980 Computer Software Act, and the report acts as informal legislative history to aid the courts in interpreting the Act. In 1980, the Copyright Act was amended to explicitly include computer programs. It now states that it is illegal to make or to distribute copies of copyrighted material without authorization, except for the user†s right to make a single backup copy for archival purposes. Any written material (including computer programs) fixed in a tangible form (written somewhere – i. . printout) is considered copyrighted without any additional action on the part of the author. Therefore, it is not necessary that a copy of the software program be deposited with the National Copyright Office for the program to be protected as copyrighted. With that in mind a copyright is a property right only. In order to prevent anyone from selling your software programs, you must ask a (federal) court to stop that person by an injunction and to give you damages for the injury they have done to you by selling the program. The Software Rental Amendments Act was approved in 1990. This Act prohibits the commercial rental, leasing or lending of software without the express written permission of the copyright holder. Another amendment to the Copyright Act was passed in 1992. This amendment made software piracy a federal offense, and instituted criminal penalties for copyright infringement of software. The penalties can include imprisonment of up to five years, fines up to $250,000 or both for unauthorized reproduction or distribution of 10 or more copies of software with a total retail value exceeding $2,500 or more. According to federal law duplicating software for profit, making multiple copies for use by different users within an organization, and giving an unauthorized copy to someone else is prohibited. Under this law if anyone is caught with the pirated software, an individual or the individual†s company can be tried under both civil and criminal law. A Civil action may be established for injunction, actual damages (which includes the infringer†s profits) or statutory damages up to $100,000 per infringement. The criminal penalties for copyright infringement can result in fines up to $250,000 and a jail term up to five years for the first offense and ten years for a second offense. When software is counterfeit or copied, the software developer loses their revenue and the whole software industry feels the effect of piracy. All software developers spend a lot of time and money in developing software for public use. A portion of every dollar spent in purchasing original softwar! e is funneled back into research and development of new software. Software piracy can be found in three forms: software counterfeiting, which is the illegal duplication and sale of copyrighted software in a form that is designed to make it appear to be a legitimate program; Hard disk loading, whereby computer dealers load unauthorized copies of software onto the hard disks of personal computers, which acts as an incentive for the end user to buy the hardware from that particular dealer; and downloading of copyrighted software to users connected by modem to electronic bulletin boards and/or the Internet. When software is pirated the consumer pays for that cost by new software and/or upgrade version being more expensive. Federal appellate courts have determined that operating systems, object code and software contained in ROMs are protected by copyright. Some lower federal courts have also determined that microcode (the instructions set on microprocessor chips) and the look and feel of computer screens is subject to copyright protection. Which has created major problems for the widespread development of multimedia applications with regards to clearing copyright for small elements of text, images, video and sound. The United States Government has been an active participant in protecting the rights of the software industry. When the Business Software Alliance (BSA) conducts a raid, Federal Marshals or local law enforcement officials participate as well. An organization known as the Software Publishers Association (SPA) is the principal trade association of the PC software industry. SPA works closely with the FBI and has also written an enforcement manual for the FBI to help them investigate pirate bulletin board systems and organizations (audits). With the help of the FBI, the result of enforcement actions resulted in recoveries from anti-piracy actions totaling $16 million since the program started in 1990. The Software Publishers Association (SPA) funds an educational program to inform individuals and corporations about software use and the law. This program provides all PC users with the tools needed to comply with copyright law and become software legal. The SPA also publishes brochures free of charge about the legal use of software for individuals and businesses. Also available to help corporations understand the copyright law is a 12-minute videotape, which is composed of the most commonly asked questions and answers to them. The video tape is available in French and Spanish and all together over 35,000 copies of the tape had been sold. The SPA has also compiled a free Self-Audit Kit with which organizations can examine their software use practices. Included in the kit, is a software inventory management program designed to help an organization track their commercial software programs that are on all their hard disks. The program searches the PC†s hard disk for more than 1300 of the most common programs used in business. Also available is the SPA Software Management Guide which helps companies audit their current software policies, educate employees about the legal use of software, and establish procedures to purchase, register, upgrade and backup computing systems. The guide, in addition, provides an Internal Controls Analysis and Questionnaire. The guide also contains all of the SPA†s current anti-piracy materials. The software industry is facing the challenges of more sophisticated network environments, greater competition among software companies along with hardware manufacturers. At this moment more software than ever before is distributed on a high volume, mass marketed basis. There are many types of software out on the market and the amount is increasing every day. They range from graphical user interfaces for application programs such as mass-market spreadsheets, to more sophisticated technical software used to design integrated circuits. The use of software plays a more vital role in our daily lives than it ever has. Such as embedded software, which is critical to equipment in such locations as a doctor†s office or an automotive shop. The instrument and devices found there depend more and more on software, because software provides the flexibility to meet the many different needs to the end user. As our lives our shaped and enhanced more by technology, there is already a greater demand that impacts the software industry. One of the main concerns of the software industry is how to deal with the issues of software licensing. More and more customers want customized software suited for their business or personal need, and expect the software development firms to accommodate to their wishes. The other side of this issue is that software development firms are concerned with unrealized revenue and excess costs in the form of software piracy, unauthorized use, excess discounts and lengthened sales cycles. For the customer and the software development firm, all of these have high administrative costs in regards to software programs. Software licensing policies were originally a result of software developer†s need to protect their revenue base in the face of potential piracy. Product delivery for software is made up of a number of different components, which are referred to as software licensing. The following factors are taken into consideration when determining a cost for a software license; physical delivery pricing, metric discounts, license periods support and maintenance, license management Tech support, change in use bug fixes and Platform Migration Product enhancements. The most commonly found type of software license found in business is known as a network license. There are four types of categories that are classified as a network license. Concurrent use licenses authorize a specified number of users to access and execute licensed software at any time. Site licenses authorize use at a single site, but are slowly being phased out and replaced by enterprise licenses. Enterprise licenses cover all sites within a corporation because of more virtual computing environments. Node licenses are also slowly being phased out because they are mainly used in a client/server environment, since the licensed software may be used only on a specified workstation in which a user must log on to in order to access and execute the software application. Currently the trend in a network system is to use measurement software, which allows vendors to be more flexible in licensing arrangements. This management software monitors and restricts the number of users or clients who may access and execute the application software at any one time. This is significant because a user pays only for needed use and a vendor can monitor such use to protect intellectual property. A new type of license that is emerging is known as a currency-based license. This type of license works on the basis that it provides to the end user a specified dollar amount of software licenses. This allows licenses to cover different business application software, so long as the total value in use at a given time is less than the amount stipulated in the license. Another type of license emerging is known as a platform-independent licensing. Which permits software to be used on a variety of different computer systems within a business, instead of buying a different license for each version of the same software used by different systems. The most common type of licensing is known as shrink-wrap, the concept behind this that the licenses terms are deemed accepted once the end user breaks a shrink-wrap seal or opens a sealed envelope containing the software. A reason for these new types of licensing is that when software licensing was first introduced, the software development firms assumed that most businesses would use the software for a 8 to 10 hour period. Yet, did not take into consideration that with the advancement of technology, more businesses would want a floating license across the world for 24 hours. This made it so it was not cost effective for the software development firm. A floating license is a license that is made available to anyone on a network. The licenses are not locked to particular workstations, instead they float to modes on the network. Shareware, freeware and public domain are different types of software available to the end user, and are distinguished by different rules about how programs may be distributed, copied, used and modified. The term shareware refers to software that is distributed at a low cost, but which usually requires a payment after a certain time period and registration for full use. Copies of this software are offered on a trial basis, the end user is free to try a scaled down version of the program. If the end user wants the shareware program, included in the program is information specifying how to register the program and what fee is required. Once registered the end user will typically receive a printed manual, an updated copy of the software (often with additional features), and the legal right to use the program in their home or business. The advantage that shareware has is that it lets the end user thoroughly test a program to see if it†s useful before making a purchase. The ! authors of shareware programs retain their copyright on the contents, and as other copyrighted software should not be pirated. Freeware is also distributed at a very low cost and like shareware is found mainly on the Internet. The authors of the freeware program do not expect payment for their software. Typically, freeware programs are small utilities or incomplete programs that are released by authors for the potential benefit to others, but the drawback to this is that there is no technical support. Public domain software is generally found on the Internet and is released without any condition upon its use. It may be copied, modified and distributed as the end user wishes to do. A license manager is a system utility-like application that controls or monitors the use of another end-user application. It is generally implemented to protect intellectual property (meaning to stop illegal copying) and/or to become more competitive by offering new ways in which to evaluate, purchase and pay for software. Since the license manager controls the number of application users, there is not a need to control the number of application copies. This process lets the end user run one or more applications between machines, without violating the terms of the license agreement.

Text analysis and report based on a systemic functional linguistic and Essay

Text analysis and report based on a systemic functional linguistic and - Essay Example Clearly, the courageously defiant tone and message of Invictus was born of the extreme hardships that dogged the heels of Henley throughout his life. Despite the loss of his leg, Henley attained some moderate success as the editor of the London Observer, and counted among his close friends the likes of Robert Louis Stevenson and Rudyard Kipling. He married and was blessed with a daughter named Margaret; unfortunately, fate caught up with him and he lost five-year-old Margaret to cerebral meningitis. Then in 1902, his dormant tuberculosis condition resurfaced, from which he died in 1903 at the age of 54. Understanding the travails of the poem’s author makes its legacy all the more remarkable for being the inspiration for Nelson Mandela, during his 26-year incarceration as political prisoner who championed the cause of human rights. The poem sustained the imprisoned man who, upon the lifting of apartheid in South Africa, became the nation’s President. For the purposes of this paper, the text of the poem was chosen because of the several contexts in which the poem found relevance in the lives of many people. Images connected with it are presented herein, with the text of the poem, in Appendix A. The text shall be analysed using the systemic-functional theory, and the multimodal approach. Textual analysis may only be meaningfully carried out within the context of the purpose for which the text is articulated. â€Å"Language is said to be functional because its organisation quire fundamentally reveals the purposes for which any natural language came into being† (Christie, 1999). In the analysis of the chosen text, the poet’s purpose in composing the poem and choosing his words will be given focus. Traditionally, language is described in terms of grammar and lexis viewed separately. On the other hand, lexico-grammar approach regards language as â€Å"meaning conveyance of words working in

Business Skills & Employability Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Business Skills & Employability - Case Study Example Further, J Sainsbury also faces the threat of interest groups that seek to ensure profound production and distribution comprehends consumer welfare appropriately. Researches implement that the corporation operates at least 1,106 supermarkets in the UK, and other leading economies. The tally also includes a broad chain of convenience stores that the company runs at a global perspective (Cunningham & Harney, 2012, p. 47). Its analysts argue out that the customers are of salient value to the longevity and growth in performances thus all its investment initiatives focus on that fact. J Sainsbury Company elevates its chain stores to ensure that its products aim at the right consumer groups in order to achieve a profitable market share, and growth on a global perspective. The UK based supermarket operates on a global platform with standardized practices while targeting a broad customer network with divergent needs and wants. Secondly, the company’s 480 retail outlets based in the UK have been of significant importance to the entire organization in maintaining its second position and challenging TESCO, the country’s market leader (Hensmans, Johnson, & Yip, 2013, p. 88). Despite its global targeting approaches, the grocery chain has continuously accrued beneficial outcomes, and profitable performances in all its segments, a factor that is evident in the over 20 countries of operations at the global platform. The chain store’s forecasts ensure that it has gradually diversified competitively and profitably over its local and foreign competitors. Informative survey shows that the company’s market operations face contests since the global grocery industry comprises of both local and international competitors and it is evident that some of them exceedingly operate in broader segments (Cunningham & Harney, 2012, p. 67). The following discussion seeks to establish J Sainsbury’s business practices and its SWOT analyses, with the recommended a pproaches to restructure its strategic plan (Wied & Ebers, 2007, p. 133). Sainsbury’s business environment The corporation founded in early 1869 by UK nationals, John and Mary Sainsbury and it grew proficiently throughout the 19th, 20th, and is currently turning into a global icon after pausing at the second largest chain in the UK, and further as the most profitable grocery company. The adventurous global market production and sales approach emanates from the company's sustainability strategy, which entails the salient measures observable before the purchase of groceries and other consumer products. Statistics reveal that Sainsbury strategic planning contributed to its profitable outcomes whereby the management reported pretax revenue of over ?400 million. Sainsbury’s economic precision extends towards growth in the market since its product portfolio includes the requirement of enticing and outsourcing on producers in order to reduce the expenses articulated to produc ing and packaging some of the company’s consumer goods (Zentes, Morschett, & Schramm-Klein, 2011, p. 244). The company’s coherent integration of the varied political systems enables it to win economic gains throughout the target markets. The use of technology and innovation stimulates competition, and Sainsbury displays the ability to prosper competitively in the global market. J Sainsbury’s SWOT analyses Strengths The company’s credentials and its success in the grocery industry emanate from the long-range objectives and

Week 7 lab on human bones Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Week 7 on human bones - Lab Report Example Locate the spine and palpate along the edges with the subject recumbent, bony prominences would be felt. Easier in children and lean males (Sinnatamby). C7: relatively harder to locate and palpate, easier in adult, lean males, feels as the most prominent cervical spinous process, differentiated from C6 by its movement upon extension of the head (Sinnatamby). Curves of the spine: easy to locate and palpate in children and lean males, with the subject standing erect. Just following the spine would reveal its curves in the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal regions, the last two regions being harder to locate and palpate (Drake, Vogl, and Mitchell). Several ribs: the upper ribs are easier to locate in males than in females, and overall easier to locate in lean people. They feel as bony arches alternating with shallow depressions (Moore). The sternocostal junction: once the sternum is located, the sternocostal junction is easy to locate by palpating at the edge of the body of the sternum, easier in lean males (Sinnatamby). Posterior to anterior palpation of ribs: relatively difficult to palpate individual ribs posteriorly than anteriorly. Easier in lean males. Start from the sides of the thorax and palpate along the arches till the body of the sternum (Drake, Vogl, and Mitchell). The 12th rib: relatively hard to locate. First locate the xiphoid process which is hard to palpate itself, then move along the edge to the hanging ribs. Tender in children. Much easier to locate in lean males (Moore). Jugular notch on manubrium: easier to locate, felt as a dip or a notch medially at the junction of the two clavicles. Easier in

Roman Civilization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Roman Civilization - Essay Example In addition, military leaders won considerable popularity among the people by their impressive victories and opposition to traditional senatorial government. The most telling examples of how an influential leader could ascend to the pinnacle of power, pushing into the background the other political institutions, are Marius with his 7 consulates, Sulla, eventually becoming a dictator, unlimited by time or by law; Crassus and Pompey, repeatedly achieving their consulate, and, finally, Caesar. The reform of the army, which became a fundamentally important aspect of Roman history started at about 107 BC during the war between Rome and the Numidian king Jugurtha. This war got a particularly scandalous publicity, since the enemy was so shamelessly bribing the senators that the decline of their authority led to the fact that the Roman army came under the command of Gaius Marius. To combat a powerful enemy for the first time in the history of Rome access to the army of volunteers was opened regardless of social class (the landless, impoverished city dwellers, etc.). Service in the army turned from an honorable duty into a profitable profession; soldiers received salary and were promised land. Organization of the army was improved (Marius introduced division of the legions to cohorts, each consisting of 3 maniples of 200 people), as well as command in general, technical equipment, etc. As a result, the Roman Republic got a well-organized professional army. On the other hand the army has turned into an independent social force with its own interests, needs and requirements. Military reform has laid the conditions for the extreme increase in power of individual military chiefs, as opposed to the weakening of central authorities, which lost the competence in military sphere, and along with it power functions: The acceptance into the army of persons who had few and eventually no roots in the State would have demoralizing consequences, and enable the generals of the first ce ntury to use their armies as though they were their own (Smith 63). Due to the elevation of individual political figures the inevitable structural changes took place in the state apparatus. In particular, a number of extraordinary and ordinary magistrates appeared which have received incomparable power. The role of a military leader increased manifold; and such leader was able to use the army as a weapon in the struggle for power in the state. As the first example of this we can consider the consulates of Gaius Marius, which were received in absentia, contrary to the republican tradition, almost continuously: in 107 and since 104 to 100 BC. Other examples include series of extraordinary powers given to Pompey since 78 to 52 BC, when he got an institutionalized by the Senate sole authority over the state. The anti-Senate forces, led by Caesar, Pompey and Crassus, known as the first triumvirate depended greatly on the army. Probably, the strongest influence of the army displayed itsel f in the civil war. The war that began in 49 BC was caused exclusively by the ambitions of the colonial emperor and his troops; though â€Å"Caesar stressed throughout the willingness of his troops to support his cause† (Keppie 103) it was not justified by any social or political programs. This was the conflict between the pretenders, each of whom found

Why did the social war between Rome and her Italian allies break out Essay

Why did the social war between Rome and her Italian allies break out in 90 BC - Essay Example The crisis eventually culminated into a social war in 90 BC. It is called the social war because it was between Rome and its allies. According to Salmon (1958), the social war between Rome and her Italian allies was waged between 91 and 88 BC; it was mainly between several cities in Italy and the Roman Republic (162). Before the war, the Italian cities had been Roman allies for many centuries. Fundamentally, the ancient Rome’s Italian allies who were against the Roman franchise had waged the war. Previously, the allies in southern and central Italy had fought with Rome in various wars and therefore they had grown restive under the autocratic rule in Rome. Their allies were interested in gaining the Roman citizenship and the privileges that come along with it (Ogilvie, 1980, 18). In 91 BC, in a bid to pursue this interest, Marcus Drusus, the Roman tribune, attempted to solve this problem through a legislation proposal that would have ensured that all Italians are admitted to citizenship. This proposal led to a furious debate in the Senate; those opposed to it were so bitter that they assassinated Drusus. As a result, the Italian allies were frustrated and rose into revolt (Brunt 1971, 13). It is important to first understand the situation between Rome and Italian alliances prior to the war. Gabba (1976) observes that the Early Italian campaigns of between 458 and 396 BC saw the conquest of Italy by the Romans thus resulting into a collection of alliances between the Italian communities, cities, and Rome. The alliances collection was on favourable terms influenced by whether a certain city had been defeated in war or if its alliance with Rome was voluntary. Theoretically, these cities were independent but in practice, Rome had authority over them as it had the right the right to demand tribute money from them, and their desirable number of soldiers. Two centuries later, two- thirds of Roman soldiers were from the Italian allies. This meant that